1994 INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM DYNAMICS CONFERENCE
Only Connect!
Part I: An A d Selection from the Li on the Problem Structuring
Methods of 'Soft' Operational Research
David C Lane Jonathan Rosenhead
City University Business School The London School of Economics and Political
Frobisher Crescent Science
Barbican Centre Houghton Street
London, EC2Y 8HB, UK London, WC2A 2AE,
Tel: 71 477 8619
Fax: 71 477 8880 Tel: 71 405 7686
E-mail: d.c.lane@city.ac.uk Fax: 71955 7416
E-mail: rosenhej@vax.Ise.ac.uk
Abstract
What other activities and techniques exist that are of interest to system dynamicists? Are ther
possibilities for system dynamics itself to contribute to them? These questions have been of interes
to the authors for some time and now the 1994 System Dynamics Conference is helping to advanci
the debate. This paper tries to help things along.
We consider two areas of interest: the problem i hniques of ‘soft’ ional researcl
and the wide range of systems thinking concepts employed in the systems movement. Both involv:
valuable ideas and experiences. Both have a more European-orientated perspective, in contrast to tht
mainly-US viewpoint of system dynamics. In this two-part paper we therefore offer a selection fron
the literature of the two as well as brief annotations.
In this first part we consider the emergence of a range of practical problem structuring methods, thei
ding in respective theories of isational interventions and group processes, their creators
concern with participation and the political and power consequences of their work and, finally, the
current debates in the area. In the second part (q.v.) we turn to systems thinking.
Of course, this is only our own selection but our aim is to encourage connections between these area:
of activity. We have no doubt that they will be mutually beneficial.
Problem - Solving Methodologies, page +
1994 INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM DYNAMICS CONFERENCE
Only Connect!
Part I: An Annotated Selection from the Literature on the Problem
Structuring Methods of 'Soft' Operational Research
INTRODUCTION
The motivation of this two-part paper is twofold. Firstly, it results from the current interest in
the commonalities between the theory and practise of system dynamics modelling and those of
similar approaches more widely discussed in the UK and the rest of Europe. These commonalities
were first explored in detail by DCL® and are a key theme of the 1994 International System
Dynamics Conference to which both authors were invited as speakers. Secondly, this paper arose
because of a survey of the system lit >. After the di ion in Cancun concerning
this paper, John Sterman suggested to DCL that a similar piece on soft OR and systems thinking
might be a valuable contribution to the system dynamics community.
Out intent is therefore to provide system dynamicists with the opportunity of exploring two
literatures which we believe have much to offer. We refer to the written material on both
problem structuring methods (PSMs) and to the broad range of activities that Europeans describe
as ‘systems thinking’. Those involved with this dual piece had initially intended to write a single
paper but this has not proved to be a useful format. Although both literatures provide
opportunities for valuable engagement, their natures are too different to be embraced within one
paper without confusion. Instead, we have attempted our task in two parts, making a somewhat
arbitrary division. In the second part8, we consider the systems thinking sources. In the first part,
the document that you are now reading, we consider PSMs.
With this set of sources on PSMs, the detailed points of interest for the system dynamics
community have been studied in some detail elsewhere, so for the purposes of this selection, we
need only make the following brief comments. PSMs grew out of increasing concern within the
Operational Research community that more needed to be done to support managerial decision
and policy making than providing mathematical tools for the increasingly accurate solution of
defined, tactical problems. An additional concern was that the benefits of Operational Research
were only available to those who had both access to the decision making forum (and the power to
influence it) and the ability to pay the increasing cost of these approaches. What some saw as a
srisis of i Open and others as an opportunity for more socially-grounded and richly
h practice, yielded a shift in ideas (§1). Much theoretical
el has been done: on the nature of group activities and the difficulties involved with addressing
the real world ‘messes’ that constitute strategic issues, this work being strongly influenced by the
social (rather than the natural) sciences (§2). What has appeared is a set of techniques which can
be used with groups to help clarify and structure the issues that confront then and which facilitate
participative an exchange of ideas and views which lead to action (§3). These have been applied
in practical situations (§4). A variety of debates have occurred to advance the area and they
continue now. In particular, there is much concern regarding the nature of participation, the
a. Lane, D.C. 1993. With A Little Help From Our Friends: How third generation system dynamics and the
issue structuring techniques of ‘soft OR can learn from each other. In System Dynamics 1993: The role
of strategic modelling in p (E.Zepeda and J.A.D.Machuca, Eds.), pp.235-
244. System Dynamics Society, Boston.
This paper is more widely available as:
Lane, D.C. 1994. With A Little Help From Our Friends: How system dynamics and 'soft' OR can learn
from each other. System Dynamics Review 10(2-3):1-34.
B. Sastry, M.A. & J.D.Sterman. 1993. Desert Island Dynamics: An annotated survey of the essential system
dynamics literature. In System Dynamics 1993: The role of strategic modelling in international
competitiveness (E.Zepeda and J.A.D.Machuca, Eds.), pp.466-475. System Dynamics Society, Boston.
‘Ay Lane, D.C. & M.C.Jackson. 1994. Only Connect! Part IJ: An Annotated Selection from the Literature on
the Breadth and Scope of Systems Thinking. In System Dynamics 1994: Exploring the boundaries, this
volume.
Problem - Solving Methodologies, page 148
1994 INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM DYNAMICS CONFERENC!
effects of unequal power and the limits to democratic access involved in sessions involving PSM:
- whether they concern a management team or a debate on public policy. Similarly, there i:
interest in how one can choose between the different PSMs, whether they can be combined anc
whether new ones can be usefully crafted. The attachment to social science concerns is also :
crucial element in these debates (§5). In our last section we have located collections of material:
spread across the previous five sections (§6). This indicates the difficulty of the quasi
chronological structure that we have chosen for our selection. To surmount this further, we havi
tried to show the connections between works in different sections by numbering each selection
The primary emphasis is on the aspects which seem most clearly related to system dynamic:
practise - in particular group decision support - or those which contrast with the system dynamic:
approach in the most striking, challenging and illuminating way. Some historical works ar
included in order to provide a persp on the evol of the
We should state again that the division of systems thinking from. PSMs is difficult and artificia
because of the areas of overlap. Some items are, in fact, repeated, though the differences in thei
annotations reflect the different emphases of the two bibli hies. We would theref<
encourage interested readers to consult the sibling selection8.
A final, and perhaps is that this selection is just that: a selection. It doe:
not aim to be definitive or authoritative. It is a partial account of the literature of PSMs and wi
mean partial in two senses. Firstly, the authors themselves are not impartial: the selection tha
we offer draws on our own knowledge and research interests. Secondly, in the space available, w
cannot hope to do full justice to the enormous efforts that researchers have invested in this area
Nor can we directly contribute here to the discovery and mapping of the terrain shared by
system dynamics, systems thinking and the PSMs of soft Operational Research. Our hope car
only be that our paper might add to the exploration of mutually i g areas by supplying :
crude signpost to possible destinations and connections. If it does so then it will have served it
purpose. The exploration itself must continue elsewhere but we would commend it to ou
colleagues. With this paper, we can only connect.
§1 THE SHIFT OF IDEAS
1. C.W.Churchman. 1967. Wicked problems. Management Science 14(4):141-142.
In this short piece Churchman takes up the idea of 'wicked' problems from his Berkele:
colleague, design professor Horst Rittel. Wicked problems are those which are capable o
conflicting interpretations by interested parties with different perspectives. Analysis ma‘
be used to support one viewpoint, but not to 'solve' a problem on which all are agreed
Operational Research has tended to deal with 'tame’ probl for which a
exists (or is assumed). See 22.
2. J.K.Friend and W.N.Jessop. 1969. Local Government and Strategic Choice: An operationa
research approach to the process of public planning. Oxford: Pergamon.
Classic study of decision-making in a large British city. The authors (operational researc]
observers) come to the conclusion that decision-makers need help, not in finding optima
answers, but in managing uncertainty and the process of commitment. This realisation lec
to the devel of the gic Choice App: h, the first early version of which i
described in this book. See 21.
3. H.W.J.Rittel and M.M.Webber. 1973. Dilemmas in a general theory of planning. Polic:
Sciences 4:155-169.
Provides an extended account of the notions of 'wicked' and 'tame' problems summarise:
by Churchman. The authors propose the notion of 'second generation’ design methods, t:
be used argumentatively. See 10 & 22.
Problem - Solving Methodologies, page I.
1994 INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM DYNAMICS CONFERENCE
4. R.L.Ackoff. 1979. The future of operational research is past. Journal of the Operational
Research Society 30(2):93-104.
Ackoff argues that Operational Research has lost its way, becoming enmeshed in
while naive about the context in which decisions
must be taken. The result is that Oj ional R h has been rel d to lower and
lower levels of the corporate hierarchy to deal with relatively minor issues where
5. R.L.Ackoff. 1981. The art and science of mess management. Interfaces 11(1):20-26.
Ackoff describes how Operational Research has seen its subject matter as discrete
‘problems’, whilst the managerial reality is better conceived of as 'messes'. These are
systems of probl where steps taken to 'solve' one of them are likely to
have knock-on effects on others. Different approaches are necessary, therefore, to make
progress. See 10.
6. P.B.Checkland. 1983. O.R. and the systems movement: Mappings and conflicts. Journal of
the Operational Research Society 34(8):661-675
Shows how Operational Research can be seen as one of a family of systems-based
to practical p bl These include systems analysis, systems engineering _
and Soft Systems Methodology. Op IR h, though by no means alone in this
respect, is seen as a ‘hard’ rather than a ‘soft’ systems approach, in that it conceives of a
single objectively defined problem for which a technical solution should be sought. See 19
& 27.
7. J.Rosenhead. Custom and practice. 1986. Journal of the Operational Research Society
37(4):335-343.
Rosenhead describes how the practice of Operational +h has been ided, serving
managerialist interests using methods which seek ions to i
There are many other groups which could benefit from formal maak of their situations,
notably interest groups of the disadvantaged. Equally there are big strategic problems in
the public domain to which Operational Research has made little contribution. 'Problem
structuring methods’ have the potential to make Operational Research more relevant and
accessible. See 23 & 45.
8. J.Rosenhead and C.Thunhurst. 1982. A materialist analysis of operational research. Journal
of the Operational Research Society 33(2): 111-122.
An early and striking plea for sensitivity to the hidden ideological i of.
Operational Research and the provision of its analytical capability | to a wider audience.
The paper asserts that capitalist society is filled with coercive systems which the practise
of OR supports and legitimises. The authors lament its consequent manifestation as
‘management science’, not a workers’ science. They advocate an alternative role in the
provision of ‘self-management science’ for participative, socially orientated processes
involving workers. (As published, this paper has an ‘Editor's note’ inserted which seeks to
justify the appearance of an open political stance in the journal!). See 23 &45.
9. M.Dando and P.G.Bennett. 1981. A Kuhnian crisis in management science? Journal of the
Operational Research Society 32(2):91-103
Employing the ideas of Thomas Kuhn - that in 'normal science’, dominant paradigms of
what constitute a meaningful problem, method of attack and form of solution are
periodically challenged and overthrown by new Beadione: the authors reblegt on
management science. Three d: official, refc
revolutionary. They predict that the reformist approach, typified by the work of Ackoff
and Checkland, is likely to win out. A particularly important paper.
Problem - Solving Methodologies, page 150
1994 INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM DYNAMICS CONFERENCE
§2 THEORETICAL UNDERPINNINGS
10. J.R.Ravetz. 1971. Scientific Knowledge and its Social Problems. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
This weighty contribution to the history and philosophy of science offers numbers oO
insights to, or on, Op h. One is the distinction between 'technical' anc
‘practical’ problems, which parallels that between ‘tame' and ‘wicked’ problems, and tha
between problems and 'messes'. Another is the importance of craft elements in analytic
practice. This work has been cited in support by Miser, Quade and Majone in their IIASA.
based methodological publications. See 3, 5 & 49.
11. A.Sandberg. 1976. The Limits to Democratic Planning. Stockholm: LiberForlag.
In this book Sandberg explores the question of whether, and how, planning methods car
serve a society in which democracy is taken seriously. Relevant to the debate abou
Op h are: the i pable importance of ‘perspective’ when framing
planning questions; the danger of the future’ by p out into the futur:
the continuance of the social relationships which have d current data sets; thi
consequent need to engage in ‘conditional projections', which examine possible futur
behaviours if certain present 'givens' are replaced by new arrangements.
C.Eden. Problem construction and the influence of OR. 1982. Interfaces 12(2):50-60.
Problems are not ‘given’, argues Eden. They are constructed by a social process within th:
or Operational R h needs to be more sensitive to the dynamics of th:
decision-making process among managers. If it can achieve this, then it has grea
potential for managing the debate among managers.
C.Eden. 1987. Problem solving or problem finishing? In M.C.Jackson and P.Keys (eds.
New Directions in Management Science. Aldershot: Gower. 1987.
Just as with problem construction, so the end of an involvement of analysts witl
managers is a process rather than an event. There is a process of disengagement, witl
managers detaching themselves from the activity as they feel that it has produced enougl
to meet their current needs, or on the basis of expectations of the likely return from thi
investment of further time.
J.W.Bryant. 1989. Problem Management: A guide for producers and players
Chichester: Wiley.
Bryant's book is hard to describe! Its subject matter is the practical business of managiny
bl Ss app h is eclectic (drawing on many disciplines), and its hasis is o1
process. Of particular interest is the use “of a theatrical metaphor for the engagemen
between analysts and managerial participants. Full of thought-provoking ideas an
comments.
L.D.Phillips. 1984. A theory of requisite decision modelling. Acta Psychologica 56.
When building models for use in helping managers to reach agreement, the model shoul:
be no more elaborate or detailed than is required by the decision at hand. See 35 & 36.
L.D.Phillips and M.Phillips. 1993. Facilitated work groups. Journal of the Operationa
Research Society 44(6):533-549.
Internal or external consultants assisting work groups to reach agreed decisions need :
different range of skills than those with
They need to be sensitive to group dynamics, internal politics, suppressed anxieties etc
While managing this process to a constructive resolution, the authors hold that th:
facilitator should absolutely avoid making any contribution relevant to the content of th:
group task. See 35 & 36.
Problem - Solving Methodologies, page 1
1994 INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM DYNAMICS CONFERENCE
§3 DESCRIPTIONS OF PROBLEM STRUCTURING METHODS
17.
20.
21.
22.
23.
C.Eden, S.Jones and D.Sims. 1983. Messing About in Problems. Oxford: Pergamon.
Provides the most recent, book-length account of Strategic Options Development and
Analysis (SODA). This employs cognitive mapping to surface the concepts which
individuals involved in a situation use to make sense of it. The maps of the concepts
employed by different participants are merged, and the resulting ‘strategic map' is used to
provide a fr ‘k for group di and to take the group forward towards
0 a coh package of i The book does not cover more
recent developments, especially those based on the sophisticated softy now availabl
See 26.
F.Ackermann, S.A.Cropper and C.Eden. 1991. Cognitive mapping for community OR. In
A.G.Munford and T.C.Bailey (eds.) OR Tutorial Papers 1991. Birmingham: Operational
Research Society. 1991
A practical guide to the nuts | pnd bolts of conducting SODA. The explanation is within the
ion area of C Op ‘h, but applies more widely. See 26.
P.B.Checkland. 1981. Systems Thinking, Systems Practice. Chichester: Wiley.
This classic text provides both a survey of the philosophy and concepts underlying Soft
Systems Methodology (SSM), and an account of the thodol itself. SSM i
constructing idealised models of alternative systems each of which, from at least one
perspective, might be of interest. These are used to generate debate about oe > systemic
and cultural appropriateness of possible changes to the organisation. See 6 & 2
J.Mingers. 1992. Questions and suggestions in using Soft Systems Methodology. Systemist
14.
A sympathetic but critical account based on the experience of using SSM in practice,
Guidance is provided on the choices which a practitioner must make, and there is
discussion of the validity of claims and assumptions associated with SSM.
J.K.Friend and A.Hickling. 1987. Planning Under Pressure. Oxford: Pergamon.
Beautifully organised and presented account of the Strategic Choice Approach. This
is d to assist decisi king under uncertainty. A range of ‘soft’
decision technologies, evolved out of practice, are deployed to take groups through the
various stages of decision-making. The emphasis is on managing uncertainty, and the
visible end-product is a mitment package’ of shorter term actions and explorations,
and of longer-term possibilities for action based on those explorations, plus contingency
plans. See 2.
R.O.Mason and I.I.Mitroff. 1981. Challenging Strategic Planning A.
cases and techniques. New York: Wiley.
This book describes Strategic Assumptions Surfacing and Testing (SAST). This is a
methodology the purpose of which is to expose policy to dialectical debate. Different
groups of partici develop al and identify their key assumptions.
Discussion of these between the assembled poe aids a broader understanding, and the
dj strategy, or at least a clarified
aptic Theory,
of
disagreement, should emerge. See lL
J.Rosenhead. 1980. Planning under 2: A methodol for rob analysis.
Journal of the Operational Research Society 31(4): 331-341
A description of Robustness Analysis, a methodology concerned to identify initial
decisions which preserve useful flexibility. The approach is relevant under conditions of
high uncertainty, and when there is the possibility of sequential commitment. It rates
alternative initial commitments in terms of their abilities to keep useful future options
open, and to exclude possibly damaging routes into the future.
Problem - Solving Methodologies. page 152
1994 INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM DYNAMICS CONFERENCE
24.
25.
P.G.Bennett and S.A.Cropper. 1986. Helping people choose: Conflict and other
perspectives. In V.Belton and R.M.O'Keefe (eds.) Recent Developments in OR. Oxford:
Pergamon. 1986.
An introduction to Hypergame Analysi h to the of conflict
situations. The special feature of this fnethodoloey 1 is its treatment of the possibility that
different 'players' in the situations may have differing perceptions of the strategies
available, or even of the preferences which other players may have over possible
outcomes.
N.Howard. 1993. The role of i isational decisi king. Journal
of the Operational Research Society ie A “a8.
An account of Metagame Analysis, an app ituati of ial conflict and
co-operation which integrates within one Framework both threats and temptations, and
the emotional dimension which may be crucial to persuasion. See 46.
§4 APPLICATIONS OF PROBLEM STRUCTURING METHODS
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
C.Eden. 1985. "Perish the thought!". Journal of the Operational Research Society
36(9):809-819
A richly described case study of the application of SODA in the publishing industry. See
17 & 18.
P.B.Checkland and J.Scholes. 1991. Soft Systems Methodology in Action. Chick
Wiley.
This book provides the most extended account so far of SSM applications, with detailed
case studies of work in government agencies, major corporations and other bodies. It also
updates the methodology. The new form responds to various criticisms, not least that of
cultural conservatism(see 37 & 38) which is (partially) addressed by the introduction of a
‘stream of cultural analysis’. See 6 & 19.
J.Mingers and S.Taylor. 1992. The use of soft systems methodology in practice. Journal
of the Operational Research Society 43(4):321-332
A survey among potential users of SSM reveals quite widespread adoption. It also shows
where it is being used and where it is not, and those aspects of the approach which do, and
do not, meet with general approval. See 19.
M.Moulin. 1991. Getting planners to take notice: An operational researcher's experience
of helping a community group to influence the design of a new maternity hospital. OR
Insight 4(1):25-29.
An unusual case study in Community Operational Research in which women dissatisfied
with what the health services had to offer them, were helped by an operational researcher
to articulate their demands for better birthing facilities. The Strategic Choice Approach
enabled the group to crystalise what they wanted. Their greater effectiveness enabled
them to influence provision. See 21 & 45.
A.Gains and J.Rosenhead. 1993. Problem Structuring for Medical Quality Assurance.
Working Paper 93.8, Operational Research, London School of Economics.
A hybrid case study dealing with the application of SODA and SSM in the National Health
Service. The work was carried out with a specialty medical audit team at a local hospital.
SODA was employed to identify relevant dit ions of how the introduction of audit was
viewed by team members, and SSM was then used to explore possible system re-designs.
See 17, 18 & 19,
Problem - Solving Methodologies, page I!
1994 INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM DYNAMICS CONFERENCE
31.
aot
35.
36.
G.Best, G.Parston and J.Rosenhead. 1986. Robustness in Practice: The regional planning
of health services. Journal of the Operational Research Society 37(5):463-478.
An application of Robustness Analysis to the planning of health services for Ottawa and
the surrounding region of Ontario. DELPHI analysis and cluster analysis were used in
junction to g ive possible futures. Extensive consultation with health
care deliverers and with the public were other features of the study. See 23 & 45.
N.Howard. 1992. Dealing with other parties. OR Insight a 18-24.
A paper which di: and Pp three app analysis.
R.Parry and J.Mingers. C: ity Operational R h: Its context and its future.
OMEGA 19(6):577-586.
Gives a broad view of the provision of Op IR h techni:
voluntary and other non-hierarchical organisations. Also offers a i ecinleiaent of the
sense of social responsibility that lead to the initiative. See 7 & 8.
C.Thunhurst, C.Ritchie, J.Friend and P.Booker. 1992. Housing in the Dearne Valley:
Doing community OR with the Thurnscoe Tenants' Housing Co-operative Part 1 - the
involvement of the Community OR Unit. Journal of the Operational Research Society
43(2):81-94
The largest ional R h project carried out to date has been with
the Thurnscoe Tenants Hoang Cooperative. This paper tells the story of that work,
which included the use of a range of soft and problem structuring methods. Some
Jusi are drawn,including on the appropriateness of hard and soft
methods. See also Part 2, in the same volume, for more extensive discussion. See 45.
Phillips. L.D. 1982. Requisite Decision Modelling. Journal of the Operational Research
Society 33(4): 303-312.
See 36.
Phillips, L.D. 1989. People-centred group decision support. In G.Doukidis, F.Land &
G.Miller, (eds.) Knowldge-based Management Support Systems. Chichester: Ellis
Horwood.
Both 35 & 36 are case studies. The use of carefully designed room layout, non-
threatening computer support and attention to group dynamics allows the facilitated
application of decision theory with managers. See 15 & 1
§5 ADVANCES AND DEBATES
37.
38.
Mingers, J. 1980. Towards an appropriate social theory for applied systems thinking:
critical theory and soft systems methodology. Journal of Applied Systems Analysis,
41-49,
Examines the specific connections between SSM and Critical Theory and concludes that
although there were many similarities, SSM at that time suffers in comparison because it
lacks a political stance and because it would tend to conserve and support rather than
challenge the status quo. See 27 & 44.
M.C.Jackson. 1983. The nature of soft systems thinking: the work of Churchman,
Ackoff and Checkland. Journal of Applied Systems Analysis 9:17-29
A dissection of the assumptions underlying the work of three leading Operational
Research/systems writers. The gist of the criticism is that the authors make strong claims
for the capacities of their respective methods to deliver radical change which cannot be
justified. Their approaches are characterised as supportive of the status quo, and
compromised by the relationship with management necessary for them to be put into
operation. In the same issue the objects of criticism respond - Churchman testily,
Problem - Solving Methodologies, page 154
1994 INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM DYNAMICS CONFERENCE
39.
40.
41.
42.
43,
44,
Checkland reasonably, Ackoff going for the jugular. See Volume 10 for Jackson's
response.
M.C.Jackson and P.Keys. 1984. Towards a system of systems methodologies. Journal of
the Operational Research Society 35(6):473-486.
The first version of an attempt to categorise both problem situations and the
methodologies appropriate to tackle them. Subjected to sustained criticism (and robust
defence) the categorisation and its justification have shifted periodically. The typology is
based on whether the systems involved are relatively simple (‘mechanical’) or complex
(‘systemic’); and on whether the participants are in agreement (‘unitary’) or have
divergent views (‘pluralist’). Later a third type of context (‘coercive'), in which the
exercise of power between participants is significant, was added and used to create ‘total
systems intervention’ (TSI). The major disputes have been over whether such problem
contexts can be objectively identified, and then used to choose methods; and over
whether the authors claimed this in the first place. See 44 & 47.
M.C.Jackson. 1987. Present positions and future prospects in management science.
Omega 15(6):455-466
Operational R h and related hes, from being ively lithic, are seen
as having now achieved a striking diversity. Jackson lays out the varieties on offer, and
discusses the various ways in which the component parts could decide to co-exist (or not).
He suggests that ‘imperialism’, the persistent, uncritical advocacy of one method over any
other, is likely to be destructive. A ‘pluralism’ in which we all learn from each other is to
be preferred.
J.Bryant. 1988. Frameworks of enquiry: OR across the hard-soft divide. Journal of the
Operational Research Society 39(5):423-435.
As discussed, as a general rule O; ional R ‘h's traditional optimisii shni are
seen as dealing with the content of problems, while problem structuring methods attempt
to handle issues of the process of decision-making as well as those of problem content.
However, this paper d that this d ion line is not absolute, using as
evidence reported work in which process issues were addressed while working with a linear
programming formulation.
P.G.Bennett and S.A.Cropper. 1990. Uncertainty and conflict: combining conflict
analysis and Strategic Choice. Journal of Behavioural Decision Making 3.
An exploration of the possibilities of combining different problem structuring methods in
joint use.
S.R.Watson. 1992. The presumption of prescription. Acta Psychologica, 80:7-31
Details the assumptions behind methodologies purporting to structure 'rational' choice.
Concentrates on various forms of decision theory and their implicit axioms -
Pp ions about human jud; - before di ing SODA and SSM. Concludes that
the idea that any unique prescriptive decision making methodology can be shown to be
better than any other is itself a false presumption. Any choice is probably based on
personal experience and conviction; research prog intended to und d this are
fraught with difficulties. This has implications for attempts to categorise the situations in
which a particular methodology may be ‘best’ for decision making. An interesting
alternative to the TSI approach.
J.Mingers. 1992. Recent devel in Critical Mi Science.Journal of the
Operational Research Society 43(1):1-10.
Engages with the ideas Jiirgen Habermas on the nature of knowledge to critique both
traditional and soft practices of Operational Research. Reviews, predominantly
unfavourably, attempts to utilise Habermas’ Critical Theory to create empowering
situations for participants, in particular TSI. Reference is also made to the problems of
power in interventions and to post-modernist questioning of the notions of rationality.
See 37.
Problem - Solving Methodologies, page 155
1994 INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM DYNAMICS CONFERENCE
45.
46.
47.
J.Rosenhead. 1992. Into the swamp: the analysis of social issues. Journal of the
Operational Research Society 43(4):293-305.
During the 1960s and 70s, policy analysis got a bad name through its overweening
ambition. In the 1980s in Britain, the government demonstrated the alternative dangers
of analysis-free policy formation. The middle way suggested here is multiple advocacy,
with interest groups empowered to make their cases by widely distributed analytical
capability. Problem structuring methods have the characteristics required to service a
more active policy debate. See 23 & 31.
N.Howard, P.Bennett, J.Bryant and M.Bradley. 1993. Manifesto for a theory of drama
and irrational choice. Journal of the Operational Research Society 44(1):99-103.
A powerfully argued case asserting that, to be useful in conflict situations, analysis must
engage with the emotional dimension of decision making. It is suggested that ‘drama
theory’ provides a more fruitful metaphorical framework than 'game theory' for the
realisation of this ambition. See 25.
Tsoukas, H. 1993. The Road to E ipation Is Through Organizati Devel
A critical evaluation of Total Systems Intervention. Systems Practice, 6(1): 53-70.
A detailed, reasoned and carefully argued critique. Two numbers later, Systems Practice,
6(3) provides a threefold response, of various degrees of quality, from TSI advocates and
Tsoukas' witheringly unconvinced restatement of his position. Interesting - and good fun.
See 39.
§6 COLLECTIONS
48.
49,
50.
R.Tomlinson and I.Kiss (eds.). 1984. Rethinking the Process of Operational Research and
Systems Analysis. Pergamon, Oxford: Pergamon.
A collection of papers delivered at an IIASA workshop. Can be seen as the milestone
which marked the point at which the mounting criticisms of the Operational Research
orthodox}. for its narrow focus on the objectively calcul. hieved i ional and
authoritative recognition.
H.J.Miser and E.S.Quade (eds.). 1985. Handbook of Systems Analysis Vol.1: Overview of
uses, procedures, applications and practice. Chichester: Wiley.
Systems analysis fights back” A distillation of the sophisticated wisdom of widely
experienced practitioners at. particularly, the RAND Corporation. That is a little unfair
to the authors from other organisations and countries who contributed to this
International Institute of Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA)-based compilation. However,
the pages: contain an unusual density of common and uncommon sense on how to practice
relatively conventional analysis and stand a very good chance of being helpful - through
knowledge of the technical repertoire. sensitivity to the organisational politics, etc. See
10.
J.Rosenhead (ed.). 1989. Rational Analysis for a Problematic World: Problem structuring
methods for complexity, uncertainty and conflict. Chichester: Wiley.
The first book to collect together a range of problem structuring methods - in this case
SODA, SSM, Strategic Choice, Robustness Analysis, Metagame Analysis and Hypergame
Analysis. It is designed to be an introductory text; each method has two chapters - the
first for exposition, the second for a case study. Each method is described by its principal
begetter. A very handy book.
Problem - Solving Methodologies, page 156
1994 INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM DYNAMICS CONFERENCI
Si.
52.
C.Eden and K.J.Radford (eds.). 1990. Tackling Strategic Problems: The role of grow
decision support. London: Sage.
The proceedings of a conference, this book provides, perhaps, the most concentratec
collection of papers about the process aspects of analytic assistance to decision processes
The focus is on how support for decision making in groups using problem structurin;
techniques can take account of the dynamics of such situations.
C.Eden, M.C.Jackson, J.Rosenhead and R.Tomlinson (eds.). 1993. Special Issue on th:
interface between OR and the Social Sciences. Journal of the Operational Researci
Society 44(6).
Over the years 1990-3, a series of 9 seminars on the interface between Operationa
Research and the social sciences was held in Britain. This issue contains papers given a
two of the seminars, dealing with the nature of problem-solving interventions, and wit!
approaches relevant to work across multiple organisations. The topics covered rang:
from the process of facilitation to the analysis of conflict.
Problem - Solving Methodologies, page |
