SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT
ON THE
DEVELOPMENT OF THE HAWATI INSTITUTE OF GEOPHYSICS
DECEMBER 1956 TO DECEMBER 1958
INTRODUCTION
This supplementary report provides more detailed information’
on certain aspects of the Hawaii Institute of Geophysics than was
included in the summary prepared recently for the National Science
Foundation,
ADDITIONS TO THE STAFF OF THE INSTITUTE
ANDITS SCIENTIFIC DEPARTMENTS*
Physics
Professional level:
Dr. John Kudar, Associate Professor
Mr. Raymond Chang, Assistant Professor
Mr. Francis Howard, Assistant Professor
Graduate level:
Seven graduate research assistants and one post-doctoral
assistant employed since 1956.
Additional professional level positions requested of
1959 Legislature;
One
Meteorology
Professional level:
Mr. Colin S. Ramage, Professor
Mr. Montie Orgill, Assistant Professor
Dr. Terrell Noffsinger, Climatologist
In addition to the two University of Hawaii staff
members the U. S. Air Force assigns two meteorological
officers to the Division of Meteorology to assist in
research and instruction. At present they are:
Major James C. Sadler
Capt. Leighton E. Worthley
*Appointments are usually divided in time between an instructional
department and the Institute.
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Technical level:
Two weather plotters
Three USAF enlisted men
Geology
Professional level:
Dr. Gordon A, Macdonald, Senior Professor
Additional professional level positions requested of
1959 Legislature:
Two
Chemistry (Only geochemistry and oceanographic chemistry are
considered here. Total staff in entire department: 13.)
Professional level:
None added in the geophysical fields, Three present
members, Dr. John J. Naughton, Dr, Harry Zeitlin, and
Dr. Michael Frodyma, work in geophysical fields. The
latter is at present working at the Plymouth Marine
Laboratory with Dr. L. H. N. Cooper to become acquainted
with methods currently employed in British oceanographic
chemistry.
Graduate level:
Of 21 graduate teaching and research assistants in the
Department of Chemistry, three are engaged in thesis
research in the field of geochemistry or chemical
oceanography.
Additional professional level positions requested of
1959 Legislature:
One-half
Oceanography (Oceanography is not an instructional department but
@ sequence of five courses is offered in this field. A new
Department of Meteorology and Oceanography is now being
organized.)
Professional level:
Since 1956 Professor Hans Pettersson and Professor Norris
Rakestraw have offered courses here. Mr. Howard (Physics)
and Dr. Zeitlin (Chemistry), and Mr. Austin (Botany)
are trained oceanographers and offer courses in physical
and in chemical oceanography and in oceanic productivity.
a3e
Soil Science (Soil Physics and Soil Mineralogy)
Professional level:
No additions
Graduate level:
Four graduate assistants and one post-doctoral fellow
Additional professional level positions requested of
1959 Legislature:
Two-thirds
Mathematics
Professional level:
Dr. H. Yamauchi, Assistant Professor
Dr. R. Riffenburgh, Assistant Professor
Five additional Instructors
Graduate level:
Three graduate assistants
Additional professional level positions requested of
1959 Legislature:
Three
RESEARCH IN PROGRESS
Physics
A. Absorption and photoionization of atmospheric gases and
their application to atmospheric physics.
Summary of Work
1. Development of photoelectric photometry in the vacuum
ultraviolet with a resolution of 0.1 A.
2. Measurements of absorption coefficients of several
gases,
(a) 02 and Ng in the region 850.1500 A with 0.1 A
resolution,
(b) NO in the region 1050~2100 A with 0.2 A resolution,
(c} NO, in the region 1050-2700 A with 0.2 A
resolution,
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(d) Acetylene, ethylene oxide, HS in the region
1050-2000 A,
(s) H20 in the region 850-1100 A,
3. Tonization yields of NO (1050-1340 A), NO2
(1050-1250 A), HOS, and H,O.
4, pereratnasan of the ionization potential of NO»,
cos, HLO, NH GO, H,S, N,0 and seventy other
sotbeutie by’ the photoiodizatfon method.
5. Development of the photoionization counter for the
vacuum ultraviolet, Sensitivity of the counter was
found to be as high as 10 photons per second. This
technique is an extension of item 4.
6. Advisory work: Some of the results obtained above
have been applied to atmospheric probing by investi-
gators at the Naval Research Laboratory and the Air
Force Cambridge Research Center.
Ionization potential of molecules by a photoionization
method,
Summary of Work
1, Further development of the photoionization method.
This method gives much more reliable results than
previous methods, The data are reproducible and the
accuracy is within + or ~ 0.01 to 0.001 ev.
2. Tonization potentials of about 300 molecules were
measured,
3. Some errors in the results of the spectroscopic
method were corrected by reinterpretation of the
Rydberg series.
4, Development of gasanu lt iyi ication ion chamber with
multiplication factors of 10 Some of the results
are useful for atmospheric probing.
Solar flare patrol.
Summary of Work
The solar flare patrol consists of a solar telescope
which photographs the sun in the light of the hydrogen
alpha line at regular intervals throughout the day, with
a visual patrol at the same time. The hydrogen spectral
line is isolated by means of a birefringent interference
type filter having a band pass of 1/2 Angstrom, The
photographs are made on 35 mm spectroscopic film at the
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normal rate of one exposure every two minutes. The rate
can be changed from one every two seconds to one every
ten minutes, as the occasion demands.
The purpose of the patrol is primarily to record the
occurrence of flares, their times of beginning, ending,
and maximum, areas, positions, and importances. These
data are sent daily by radio to the IGY communications
center at Fort Belvoir, Solar prominences are also
recorded on the films. These observations have yet to be
reduced.
Cosmic ray monitor (With University of California).
Summary of Work
The cosmic ray monitor makes a continuous record of
the neutron and mu-meson cosmic ray intensities, The
particular longitude and latitude of this station make
these records valuable for comparative purposes with
other similar recorders being operated during the IGY.
These intensities are correlated to some extent with
solar activity. The most frequently observed effect is
a decrease in the neutron intensity following a solar
flare and concurrent with a magnetic storm. A large
cosmic ray flare producing a great increase in the
intensities, such as occurred in February 1946, has not
yet BEEN OBSERVED during the IGY.
Indirect flare detector (with High Altitude Observatory).
Summary of Work
The indirect flare detector consists of two receivers,
one tuned to 18 me and the other to 27 kc, The higher
frequency receiver detects and records the intensity of
cosmic radio noise while the low frequency receiver
detects and records atmospheric radio noise produced by
electrical storms in the earth's atmosphere, The strength
of each of these signals depends to a great extent on the
degree of ionization in the ionosphere, An increase in
ionization will decrease the intensity of the cosmic
signal passing through it because of greater absorption,
put will increase the intensity of the atmospheric signal
by enhanced reflections, Thus, a solar flare which
increases suddenly the ionization in the atmosphere will
be indicated by a sudden drop in the cosmic noise signal
and a sudden rise in the atmospheric noise signal. Such
records also give valuable information about the nature
and behavior of the ionosphere itself, especially when
compared with records from other locations.
Solar radio noise patrol.
Summary of Work
The solar radio noise patrol consists of a 17 ft,
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parabolic reflector mounted on a polar axis feeding a
radio receiver tuned to 200 mc. The reflector tracks
the sun and picks up the 200 mc radiation produced by it.
The output of the receiver is recorded on a pen recorder
and the resulting record is analyzed daily for solar
bursts. Any such events are measured and reported by
radio to the IGY data centers.
Future Work
It is anticipated that the current projects will continue for
some time. New research programs will be determined in large
measure by interests of new staff members.
Meteorology
A.
Evapotranspiration in Hong Kong.
Summary of Work
Five years' potential evapotranspiration measurements
made at a representative site in Hong Kong have been
summarized. Thornthwaite's and to a less extent,
Penman's formulae, developed from mid-latitude data
overestimate summer and underestimate winter potential
evapotranspiration in Hong Kong.
A simple formula for estimating Hong Kong potential
evapotranspiration which emphasizes the importance of
humidity and wind was derived and tested. Similar
formulae may be valid for either monsoonal or tropical
maritime regions.
Surface weather chart analysis in low latitudes.
Summary of Work
Research meteorologists generally disfavor analyzing
the fields of pressure and density in the tropics, and
convincingly propound the superiority of wind analysis.
Nevertheless, most tropical weather stations discount
arguments for wind analysis and continue analyzing
surface charts by means of isobars and fronts. Both
systems seem to have their virtue and, ideally, low
latitude analysis should combine the two,
A scheme has been outlined for a master surface
wind analysis of the tropics and mid-latitudes using
streamlines and isotachs. It incorporates frontal wind
models and center locations derived from a pressure-air
mass analysis of the same data and uses cloud and weather
distribution to help delineate the field of divergence,
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An operational test shows that the scheme could fit
into the routine of a tropical station or weather central.
It might also form a base for attacking the problem of
prognosis in the tropics,
Hurricane development.
Summary of Work
Latest available compilations confirm that mean
hurricane frequencies vary widely within the tropics.
Referred to a standard area, hurricanes (typhoons) are
three times as likely to develop in the western North
Pacific as in any other generating region. A vigorous
persistent upper trough extending northeast-southwest
aeross the central North Pacific and not duplicated over
any other ocean, is thought to account for this high
frequency.
Over the Arabian Sea-and the Bay of Bengal, shear
between the lower and upper branches of the summer monsoon
inhibits hurricane formation in mid-summer. Similar but
weaker monsoon effects can be detected over the China
Sea and the Gulf of MexicosCaribbean region.
Infrequently a cold.cored "Kona" type tropical
cyclone may change into a weak warm-cored circulation and
then very rarely intensify into a hurricane.
Numerous published analyses, in particular those
describing eventual transformation of coldscored cyclones
into hurricanes, lend little support to Riehi's hurricane
development model, The analysis indicate that downstream
energy dispersion originating from intensifying upper
cyclones may trigger hurricanes, Energy dispersion from
the active mid-Pacific trough might explain the high
frequency of west Pacific typhoons, Detailed mathematical
and synoptic analyses are needed to test the hypothesis.
At times a typhoon expands and intensifies enormously
into a "super" typhoon as the center begins to move
beneath upper easterlies associated with the summer
monsoon. Temporary imbalance of the divergence field
could result in this exceptional development.
Relationship of geostrophic to observed winds.
Summary of Work
One year's observations made at the 500 mb level in
the Marshall Islands and on the Petrel Hotel, Lark India,
Loon Echo and Ptarmigan reconnaissance flights are being
used to test the validity of the geostrophic wind approxi-
mation between 8°N and 84°N. The proved accuracy of wind
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and height finding equipment now installed on reconnais~
sance aircraft and the fact that the geostrophic
computations are based on observed pressure-height
differences, and not on contour analysis, suggest that
errors in the geostrophic approximation revealed by the
investigation may well be the least attainable.
E. The northeast monsoon in the tropics.
Summary of Work
An exceptionally intense surge of polar continental
air which extended southward from China during February
1957 is being investigated in detail. Numerous ship
observations and well-placed rawinsonde stations should
enable streamline, trajectory and heat-exchange charts
to be drawn. Since the intensity of this outbreak can
never be equalled over other tropical oceans and seldom
equalled over the China Sea, the investigator may determine
the absolute limit of cold front penetration into the
oceanic tropics and the maximum possible heat flux from
ocean to atmosphere in the tropics,
F. Interaction between northern and southern hemisphere
circulations in the Asia-Australian region.
Summary of Work
Using large-area chart series analyzed in the
Meteorology Division, the investigator is attempting to
formulate a theory for small driven circulations which
are a persistent feature of equatorial atmospheric flow
patterns in the monsoon region. Their existence casts
serious doubt on the validity of the usual climatological
monsoon model.
G. Radiation measurements as an aid to high cloud observation.
Summary of Work
An attempt is being made to correlate radiation
measurements made by the U. S. Weather Bureau on Mauna
Loa with simultaneous cirrus observations by military
jet aircraft. It is hoped, thereby, to discover whether
some fluctuations in measured solar radiation can be
linked to the presence of cirrus which may not always be
observable from the ground,
H. The Burma Monsoon,
Summary of Work
Studies will be resumed on this project when
observations made during the 1958 summer monsoon become
I~
available. Rather meager evidence so far examined appears
to link fluctuations in the Burma Monsoon to general
weather conditions and early summer typhoon activity over
the China Sea.
Meteorological charts for the EQUAPAC Atias.
Summary of Work
This project has just been started; its scope and
procedures follow:
During July, August, September 1956, 7 Japanese,
1 French, and 4 American vessels conducted a quasi-
synoptic oceanographic survey in an area of the Pacific
Ocean bounded by 20°N and 20°S latitude; and 135°W
longitude west to the Asiatic coast. The results of this
survey, which was called EQUAPAC, are being prepared for
publication in an atlas which includes vertical and
horizontal charts depicting the distribution of such
oceanic variables as temperature, salinity, density,
oxygen, etc., and horizontal charts depicting pertinent
mean monthly meteorological parameters,
The Meteorology Division will prepare mean resultant
surface wind velocity and steadiness charts for each of
the three EQUAPAC months, proceeding as follows:
1. Collect the maximum number of ship and land
station synoptic observations for an area extending 5°
beyond each border of the EQUAPAC region,
2. Plot 00 GCT surface synoptic charts for each day
of the period, including 3000 ft. winds when observed,
3. Analyze the charts using streamlines and isoctachs.
4. From the analyzed charts, punch on to cards wind
speed and direction for each 10° intersection of the
analyzed area (66 points).
5. For each intersection, each month and the months
combined, make machine computations of mean resultant
winds and steadiness, plot and analyze the resultant
winds (using isogons, streamlines and isotachs) and the
steadiness,
The observations, when carefully analyzed by an
experienced analyst using approved continuity concepts,
should form the basis of an accurate day by day repre.
sentation of the surface wind field, The climatological
charts will incorporate all the observations and the
analyst's skill, The averaging process will give equal
weight to every day and to all parts of the region. Thus
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the charts should be physically more meaningful than
either charts derived from winds observed at a few fixed
points or from 5° square ship wind roses with numbers of
reports and observation dates varying widely between
squares.
The punch cards could supply other information, in™
particular on the general patterns of divergence and
relative and absolute vorticities which could lead to
studies on the relations of these parameters to cloud
and weather distributions.
The period has especial meteorological interest since
it includes the “super” typhoon “Wanda” which has already
engaged our attention under another project.
Future Plans in Meteorology
Most of the projects listed above are continuing ones. A few
new projects have been anticipated and are mentioned briefly here.
A.
Survey of United States Government meteorotogical services
in the Pacific.
Because the Division of Meteorology offers an in-
tensive eight-week course, “Advanced Tropical Meteorology"
several times annually to U. S, Air Force meteorological
officers, U. S. Navy meteorological officers, meteor-
ologists of the U. S$. Weather Bureau and SEATO
meteorological officers, the principal instructor has
an unequalled opportunity to observe the workings,
interrelationships and scientific attitudes of United
States Government meteorological agencies in the Pacific.
He would like to make a series of surveys intended to
help coordinate meteorological operations, increase the
use made of scientific advances, and improve the scientific
effectiveness of practicing forecasters.
The following questions could be made the basis for
surveys:
1. Are the agencies aware of new techniques, do
they test and evaluate them and adopt those which prove
satisfactory? Is a critical eye kept on the efficacy
of techniques already in use? Can trainees from the
Advanced Tropical Meteorology course apply their knowledge
in routine work?
2. What opportunities and facilities are available
for on-station research, particularly into local forecast
problems, and what encouragement or incentive do fore-
casters wishing to engage in research receive?
wll.
3. How can the deleterious effects of short overseas
tours (military agencies) on scientific competence be
offset?
4, Do the weather communications systems satisfy the
demands of the agencies or could meteorological practices
be improved by rearranging schedules on a basis of
scientific priority?
5. In the Pacific, operational meteorology's dead-
line pressures and administrative paperwork transform
most good graduates into tradesmen or clerks; the gulf
between their teaching and what they come to practice
increases with their service, Is there some way of making
the profession attractive enough to stimulate the most
promising meteorologists, many of whom resign or becone
apathetic?
6. None of the services uses satisfactory base
weather charts for the Pacific, and each has its own
series, Air Weather Service has already spent several
months on this problem without reaching a decision.
Wouldn't it be feasible to devise a single series of base
charts which would be much more satisfactory than any
existing series? é
Statistical forecasting.
Malone and his group, working in Cambridge have shown
that atmospheric pressure distribution at any time is
statistically and significantly related to the distribution
48 hours hence, Machine computers working with a large
sample of synoptic weather charts derived the regression
equations needed to specify future distribution. Since
in low latitudes no recognizable relation exists between
pressure configurations and weather distribution, forecast
pressure charts are of little use, However, the distri-
bution of wind as represented on an analyzed chart by
streamlines and isotachs is definitely related to weather
distribution, Malone sees no reason why (if a sample
series of 2 years' charts were carefully prepared) machine
computers could not derive regression equations from them
specifying future wind fields which in turn would be
significantly connected with weather distribution, Also
the forms of the equations might well lead to valuable
insights into the nature of atmospheric motions in low
latitudes, The technique of preparing the charts for
statistical sampling has been worked out, the data for
two years (1957-58) collected, and all that is lacking
is money, space and people to do the work,
This might truly be classed as the most basic
research possible in the field of tropical synoptic
meteorology. It could result in reconsideration of the
Geology
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laws of motion and theories of development as applied to
the tropics, paving the way for the emergence of valid
prognostic methods. Numbers of dependent research projects
would become feasible once the series was under way -
@.g8., mass transport, divergence, vorticity, trajectory
and various sea surface computations (the usefulness of
some of these is already being tested under the present
Air Force contract).
Cloud and precipitation of the trade winds.
In rada scanning of windward land and sea areas from
Kaneohe, scope photos could be taken automatically every
ten minutes during trade wind situations. Results
expected: detection of disrnal variation in precipitation
over both land and sea; assessing the effect of a mountain.
ous island on the trade winds; plotting the geographical
and intensity variability of precipitation. Kaneohe is
a representative site with minimum local distortion and
possessing continuous autographic meteorological records.
’
Weathering sequence producing gibbsitic end products from
olivine baslat on the Island of Kauai, Hawaii.
Summary of Work
Four distinct stages of weathering under subtropical
climatic conditions have been recognized on the Koloa
flows of Pleistocene age on Kauai, In stage (1) the
unaltered rock is dense, slightly porphyritic olivine
basait, with an intersertal texture, composed principally
of Labradorite (Ab, 44056) > olivine, augite, magnetite,
and minor amounts of volcanic glass. In stage (2) the
rock porosity is appreciably increased. Rims of idding-
site form around the olivine phenocrysts, and augite
alters to epidote, In stage (3) the feldspar alters
directly to gibbsite, which occurs as finely divided,
disseminated grains and as lath-shaped pseudomorphs after
the feldspar, Olivine alters further to iddingsite, iron
oxide, and minor serpentine; epidote breaks down to iron
oxide; some black opaque grains persist. In stage (4)
the alumina from some of the finely divided grains of
gibbsite in the matrix becomes mobilized and migrates
along fractures and interstitially to be redeposited as a
more coarsely grained product which occurs as a coating
in cavities and as a fracture filling. Agglutinated,
nodular masses of gibbsite may result from filling of the
larger openings.
Chemical analyses demonstrate the exceedingly rapid
disappearance of silica, calcium, and magnesium between
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stages (1) and (3) and the corresponding increase in iron
oxide and alumina,
Note: Some of the following research projects were completed
by Dr. Gordon A. Macdonald prior to his joining our staff in
January 1958, but all were completed within the period since
1956, They are included here to provide examples of the
types of research undertaken by hin,
B. The structure of Hawaiian volcanoes,
Summary of Work
The Hawaiian shield volcanoes, with their rift zones,
pit craters, dike complexes, joint systems, and faults,
are described. The indicated stress pattern appears to
be one of upthrust with resultant tensional spreading
about many individual centers. No regional pattern of
diastrophic stresses has been recognized in the volcanoes
above sea level, though the forces that produced the
Hawaiian swell and deep, and localized the voicanic centerd
themselves, certainly were of very broad regional nature,
probably affecting the entire Pacific basin, The swell
and deep may be the surface expression of a tectogene,
formed at the boundary of thermal convection cells in the
earth's mantle, in which small amounts of basaltic crust
carried downward into the peridotite zone have furnished
the magma erupted by the volcanoes,
CG, WNuees ardentes of the 1948.1953 eruption of Hibok-Hibok,
Summary of Work
Glowing avalanches from the summit region of Hibok-
Hibok volcano, Philippines, took 500 lives in December
1951, Eye.witness accounts are assembled and analyzed,
and the deposits are described. Evidence indicates that
the avalanches were not wholly due to gravity, but that
the blasts that initiated them were inclined at a low
angle,
D. Faults and monoclines on Kilauea volcano, Hawaii.
Summary of Work
Monoclinal folds produced at the surface in brittle
lavas pass laterally into normal faults. Examination of
the folds indicates stretching in the anticlinal bend,
and compression in the synclinal bend, En echelon scarps
are separated by ramps, the whole forming splintered
scarps.
-14.
Ground movements accompanying the 1955 eruption of
Kilauea volcano, Hawaii.
Summary of Work
Both instrumental measurements of ground-surface
tilting, and a leveling survey indicate a rise of more
than 2 feet along the rift zone of the volcano in the
eruption area. Directly along the rift a long narrow
graben sank, in placea as much as 5 feet. Triangulation
before and after the eruption indicates a stretching of
the ground surface essentially at right angles to the
rift zone, the amount of horizontal movement at some
stations being more than 5 feet.
Protection of places from lava flows.
Summary of Work
Diversion of lava flows, and possibly mud flows, by
aerial bombing and by constructed barriers, is examined.
It is concluded that either may work, but that barriers
are more reliable,
Hawaiian volcanoes during 1954,
Summary of Work
This is an account of earthquake activity and ground
tilting at Kilauea and Mauna Loa volcanoes, and of the
eruption in Halemaumau, Kilauea, between May 31 and
June 3, The gas cloud from the erupting lava gave no
indication of radioactivity greater than that of the
general background. Pneumatolytic alteration and
deposition on the floor of Kilauea caldera was described,
and its distribution related to the boundaries of former
pits and inner caldera walls that existed during the 19th
Century.
Dissimilarity of continental and oceanic rocks.
Summary of Work
It is pointed out that recent papers citing as
evidence of the similarity of rocks in the continents
and ocean basins the fact that andesites are present in
both, are erroneous, The “andesites" of oceanic regions
are decidedly different from the typical andesites of
continental regions, and it is suggested that they be
called “andesine basalts." Rhyolites of Easter Island
and Samoa also differ radically from typical continental
rhyolites.
J.
Ke
Le
-15.
Barriers to protect Hilo from Lava flows.
Summary of Work
The behavior of basaltic lava flows is described, and
the efficacy of barriers constructed by bulldozers to
divert them is evaluated, The history of the idea is
reviewed, It is concluded that properly placed and
constructed barriers have an excellent chance of protecting
Hilo from lava flows. Methods of construction and pow
sitions of the barriers are suggested.
Hawaiian volcanoes during 1955.
Summary of Work
The eruption of Kilauea in the Puna District, about
20 miles east of the caldera, and the earthquakes and
ground tilting that preceded and accompanied it are
described, Measurements of the temperature and viscosity
of the erupting lava and chemical analyses and petro-
graphic descriptions of the lavas were made.
Activity of Hawaiian volcanoes during the years 1951-1956,
Summary of Work
This work contains descriptions of the Kilauea
eruptions of 1952, 1954, and 1955, the Kona earthquake
of 1951, the south Hawaii earthquakes of 1952, and the
probable submarine eruptions in 1955 and 1956. Temperature
measurements and estimates of the viscosity of erupting
lavas were made, and the gas content of the erupting magma
was estimated,
Geology of the Manzanita Lake and Prospect Peak
Quandrangles, California,
Summary of Work
The aerial geology has been mapped, and progress is
being made on microscopic study of the rocks.
Petrography of the Island of Kauai, Hawaii.
Summary of Work
Most of the field and laboratory work is now
completed on this project, The recent arrival of a new
petrographic microscope will facilitate the remaining
laboratory study, The report is now partially completed.
-16.
N. Hawaiian petrogenesis.
Summary of Work
The writing of a preliminary paper on the origin of
Hawaiian lavas is in progress based on previous laboratory
and field work. Additional studies on this subject are
planned for the future.
GO. Mechanism of Hawaiian volcanoes.
Summary of Work
Until proper laboratory and instrumental facilities
become available, a review of old data on Hawaiian
volcanoes is being made in the prospect of adding to our
knowledge of the subsurface structure and mechanism of
eruption.
Future Geological Studies
A program is contemplated in seismology as soon as personnel
and facilities are adequate, This will include a seismograph net
consisting of one master station and several branch stations to
study the nature and origin of local. earthquakes other than those
that stem from active volcanoes on the Island of Hawaii, and will
make use of distant earthquakes in a study of the composition and
structure of the earth's crust and mantle beneath the Pacific
Ocean, Hawaii is an especially favorable place for the latter
work, because earthquakes arriving by paths beneath the ocean do
not suffer the further complications resulting from passing through
the boundary of the continental plate, as necessarily do all those
studied at mainland stations, This program can, and should, be
profitably integrated with the programs of the U. S. Geological
Survey at the Volcano Observatory, and with the Coast and Geodetic
Survey at Barbers Point, Oahu.
Other contemplated programs, related to volcanology and
seismology, but not strictly part of them are:
1. Gravity studies. A complete gravity net should be run
over the islands to tie in with the local work done on
Hawaii in 1957 and with the submarine work adjacent to
the islands already being done by Vening-Meinesz and
others,
2. Geomagnetic studies, Field surveys should be run, and a
permanent recording station should be established at
Kilauea Volcano, The former will add to the picture of
the structure and composition of the islands; whereas,
the latter will add to the picture of the subsurface
structure and behavior of the volcano, and possibly help
trace the movements of magma.
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Electrical earth-current and earth-potential studies. If
bodies of molten material exist near the surface, both
electrical potentials and currents must exist. But these
have never been measured and yet may supply valuable
information on subsurface structure and magma movements,
Soil Science (Soil Physics and Soil Mineralogy)
A.
Identification of secondary minerals in Hawaiian soils.
Summary of Work
Thermal analyses and surface area measurements are
being used to identify secondary minerals in Hawaiian
soil types. Samples from selected Hawaiian soil types
have been provided to the University of Wisconsin for
mineralogical analyses in which x-ray diffraction and
electron microscopy are used. The research of this
project has resulted in three publications since July 1,
1956. The project will continue.
The copper content of Hawaiian soils.
Summary of Work
Several Hawaiian soils have been analyzed for total,
water soluble, and ammonium acetate extractable copper.
Experiments have been conducted in which plants were
fertilized with copper sulfate.
The zinc content of Hawaiian soils.
Summary of Work
A study was made of the origin of dolomitic con~
eretions found around plant roots in a soil near South
Point, Hawaii. Results of the study have been published.
A study of the factors influencing the genesis of
Hawaiian latosols.
Summary of Work
This is a long-term project done in cooperation with
the Soil Conservation Service. Considerable work is in
progress, but no papers have yet been prepared for
publication,
Factors influencing the aggregation, compactibility, and
plasticity of soils.
Summary of Work
Wature of the clay minerals, organic matter content,
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particle size distribution, and exchangeable cations are
being related to aggregate stability, compactibility, and
plasticity of soils. One publication has resulted, and
a second has been prepared.
Factors affecting the behavior of nitrogen in Hawaiian
soils,
Summary of Work
The objectives of the project are to determine the
degree of ammonium fixation in Hawaiian soils and the
minerals responsible for such fixation. The influence of
soil minerals on nitrification rates and losses of nitrogen
from leaching and volatilization are also being studied.
Physical and chemical properties of Hawaiian bauxite soils.
Summary of Work
Infiltration rates, chemical, and thermai analyses
have been made on Hawaiian bauxitic soils. Chemical
analyses have been made on whole soil. Thermal analyses
have been used to evaluate presence of gibbsite in various
size fractions of the soil.
Future Studies in Soil Science
Most of the projects listed above are continuing ones.
However, the staff is ready to initiate a new project entitled
“Water Movement in Soil.” Its objectives will be to evaluate the
influence of exchangeable ions and organic amendments on rates of
unsaturated flow of water in soils.
Chemistry
A.
Diffusion in silicates.
Summary of Work
Solid state diffusion of radioactive iron-55 in the
geologically important orthosilicate system at elevated
temperatures has been measured. This has been found to
be a case where diffusion through the region between the
crystalline grains predominates. Material transfer of
many meters in geological periods is thereby possible.
A note on this study is being prepared for publication.
Study of the 1955 Puna eruption gases.
Summary of Work
Collections of volcanic gases were made at intervals
~19-
from emitting vents during the 1955 eruption of Kilauea
in the Puna district of Hawaii. Some of these were
analyzed by conventional methods but the results were not
found to be satisfactory. Recently, all samples were
analyzed using a modification of the gas chromatographic
technique, which enabled major and trace elements to be
analyzed satisfactorily. The samples were found to
consist of air and carbon dioxide as major components.
Sulfur gases were found in low concentration. It was
interesting to note that in the early stages of activity
sulfur dioxide predominated, while in the later stages
hydrogen sulfide was the dominant sulfur gas. Such a
compositional variation would be expected thermo-~
dynamically from consideration of volcanic temperatures
at these stages. This effect may yield a possibility of
predicting the imminence of eruption through the analysis
of gases emitted from solfatara in the vicinity of
volcanoes, Publication is planned for the near future.
Method for collection of volcanic gases.
Summary of Work
Frequently an interaction between volcanic gases
occurs in containers after collection. This process
sometimes invalidates subsequent analyses and obscures
the actual nature and proportions of the emitted gases.
In order to prevent such interaction a procedure of
lowering evacuated chromatographic columns into vents
was attempted. Glass tips on the columns were broken
when the column was in place and at the temperature of
the vent. Gases were absorbed and held on separate
portions of the column and interaction was not possible.
The procedure worked well under laboratory and field
conditions. It is planned to submit a note for publication
in the near future.
Relation of gases emitted from silicate systems to the
oxidation state of the system.
Summary of Work
Preliminary work has been done on artificial silicate
systems of fayalite composition. The oxidation state
was controlled by exposure in the solid state at 1000°C
to gaseous atmospheres of known oxygen partial pressure.
The silicates were chemically malyzed, examined for
mineral composition, and the gases evolved from the
molten system were collected and analyzed. The oxidation
condition of the evolved gas (C02/CO ratio) was found to
be related to the oxidation state of the silicate, and to
change radically with phase changes. This work was
supported by a grant from the Research Corporation. Some
aspects of the investigation are continuing, and publication
-20~
is planned for the future.
Evolved gas oxidation relationship in the liquidus region
of the iron-magnesiasilicate system.
Summary of Work
As an extension of work on the fayalite system, an
investigation is underway in the liquid state for similar
systems with the addition of magnesia. Such systems are
mincralogically more akin to actual rocks. Work has just
started under a grant from the National Science Foundation.
Currently the problems of producing and controlling very
high temperature (circa 1500°C) are being investigated.
Kinetics of the catalyzed oxidation of hydrogen sulfide.
Summary of Work
The deficiency in oxygen (compared to air) of the air
fraction of gases collected from fumaroles has led to a
suspicion that it may play a role in the oxidation of
volcanic gases in situ ~ particularly hydrogen sulfide.
Iron oxide is known to act as a catalyst for the low
temperature oxidation of this gas. A study of this poorly
understood process has been started. The possible
catalytic role of basalt also is to be investigated,
Isotopic composition of elements in volcanic gases.
Summary of Work
Samples of volcanic gases have been sent to workers
on the mainland who have mass spectrometers for investi-
gation of the mass ratios of the lighter clements.
Carbon (Nier and Craig), sulfur (Kulp), and nitrogen
(Hoering) have been investigated, Carbon has been found
to be somewhat heavier than that in the gases (C05) of
the atmosphere, Nitrogen, on the other hand, has been
found to be identical with this gas in the atmosphere.
This last is taken as further evidence of the saturation
of the upper crust of the carth with air under the
conditions prevalent on the Hawaiian volcanoes.
Determination of organic carbon in sca water.
Summary of Work
The determination of organic carbon in its various
forms is most significant to the problem of productivity
in the oceans. Research efforts here have taken two
directions:
1. An investigation into the feasibility of
-21-
determining organic carbon in sea water by a
new micro method by the utilization of catalytic
combustion and the application of high vacuum
techniques has been initiated, Apparatus has
been developed to the point where it is now
feasible to make micro determinations of lake
waters, The proposed scheme of analysis has the
desirable features of rapidity and continuity of
operation.
2. An apparatus based on those in current use has
been set up for the determination of organic
earbon in sea water, The method involves wet
combustion of the sample, pretreated in order to
remove inorganic carbon, with silver dichromate
and sulfuric acid, The mixture of carbon monoxide
and carbon dioxide resulting from the oxidation
of the organic carbon is swept with pure oxygen
through a heated combustion tube packed with
catalyst to insure complete conversion of carbon
monoxide to carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide
is absorbed quantitatively in a measured volume
of standard barium hydroxide and the organic
carbon in the sample estimated after back
titration with standard acid in a micro buret.
Preliminary runs indicate concentrations of 4.5
mg/l for Kaneohe Bay waters and 1.0-1.5 mg/l
for off shore waters.
Determination of the nitrogen-phosphorus ratio in
tropical waters,
Summary of Work
Although the N/P ratio in northern Atlantic waters
has been well investigated, information concerning this
ratio, which is of fundamental importance to marine
biology, in tropical waters is lacking. Initially, the
investigation will include determinations at frequent
and regular intervals at selected stations in local waters
to study temporal fluctuations of the two nutrients in
relation to fish populations of economic importance, The
study will be expanded, if feasible, to include equatorial
waters. The project has been underway since September
1958 in collaboration with Me, Thomas Austin of the
Pacific Oceanic Fishery Investigations,
Determination of phosphate in sea water by spectral
reflectance,
Summary of Work
The application of the technique of spectral
reflectance to this important analysis will be, if
=22—
successful, a significant contribution to oceanography,
since the proposed new method may possess many advantages
over the methods in current use. The method involves the
development of the blue phospho-molybdate complex in an
anhydrous state on a solid adsorbent disc. The analysis
of the sample is completed by measuring the absorbance
of the complex in the D.U. spectrophotometer equipped
with a standard reflectance attachment. The phosphate
concentration is obtained from a calibration curve
previously prepared with the aid of the technique of
spectral reflectance from solutions of known concentration
of phosphate. The new method would eliminate completely
the problem of turbidity and the use of glass cells in the
determination, The research is being done in collaboration
with Mr. John Van Landingham of the Pacific Oceanic Fishery
Investigations, Preliminary results are promising.
K. Oceanographic chemistry in a pollution study of Kaneohe
Bay, Oahu,
Summary of Work
This work is part of a broad scale, interdepartmental
survey of Kaneohe Bay with reference to possible ecological
changes occurring after a sewage outfall planned for the
Bay is operative. An oceanographic chemistry laboratory
was established for the chemical analyses, and periodic
sampling at several stations at various depths in the Bay
has been initiated. Temperature, salinity, dissolved
oxygen, B.O.D., total suspended solids and volatile solids,
phosphate and organic carbon analyses are being made to
establish base norms prior to the construction of the
outfall,
RESEARCH EQUIPMENT AND FACILITIES ADDED SINCE 1956
1, Modest solar observatory facility built at Makapuu, Oahu,
to house several IGY projects,
2. Satellite tracking observatory built at summit of Mt.
Haleakala, Maui. Tracking camera was provided by the
Smithsonian Institution; buildings by the University of
Hawaii Foundation,
3. Completed construction of a 1 meter vacuum monochromator.
The following items have been assembied from various sources
for IGY projects at the Makapuu Observatory. It is anticipated
that they will remain as long as they are being used:
&. Solar telescope, 64" focal length, with automatic
-23.
programming of exposures. Equipment for this instrument
includes (a) heliostat and 8" flat mirror, (b) birefringent
interference filter with band pass of 1/2 Angstrom on the
Hydrogen alpha line, and (c) a 35 mm stop-motion camera.
5. Cosmic ray monitoring equipment consisting of neutron
pile and 2 meson telescopes with associated electronics.
6, "Recordak' microfilm viewer,
7. Apparatus for indirect flare detector consisting of:
(a) receiver, 18 mc, for cosmic radio noise, (b) receiver,
27 kc, for atmospheric radio noise, and (c) Sandbora
Recorder,
Meteorology
1. Various meteorological instruments including 2 mobile
radars.
2. “Recordak" microfilm camera,
3. Time-lapse attachment for 16 mm movic camera.
Geology
1, “Leitz” polarizing petrographic microscope, model AM,
research type.
2. "Monla™ constant.voltagée lamp, with regulator.
3. "Bausch and Lomb" petrographic microscope and accessories.
4, Light source for petrographic microscope.
5. Photographic equipment.
6. Map filing cabinet.
7. Specimen storage cabinet.
8. Specimen storage rack.
9, "Marchant" calculating machine.
10. Drafting table, instruments, etc.
11, Various other less costly items.
Soil Science
1, New soil physics laboratory, 24' x 24',
2. Apparatus for soil moisture investigations.
-24.
3. Soil density sampler.
4. Force draft oven,
5. Infilterometer.
6. "Bausch and Lomb" colorimeter.
7. “Kjeldahl” apparatus, digestion and distillation.
8, Mettler direct reading analytical balance.
9, Ten platinum crucibles,
10. Rapid differential thermal analysis apparatus.
Chemistry
1, Emission spectrograph.
2. Two gas chromatographic outfits.
3. “Craig" counter current extractor.
4. Molecular still.
5. Sieve-plate still.
GRADUATE TRAINING
In the former report it was pointed out that the newness of
degree curriculums in Geology, Meteorology and Oceanography has
precluded graduate study to date, butthat advanced degree programs
were contemplated as soon as feasible.
It is possible at present to pursue graduate study to the
doctoral degree in Geochemistry and Soil Physics or Soil Mineralogy.
The University properly has been cautious in approving doctoral
programs until staff, research facilities and library were
adequate to insure their success. The same critical evaluation of
advanced degree programs in other aspects of geophysics will be
made, and when all requirements are met, doctoral programs will be
initiated,
Stress now being placed on the development of geophysical
research, and on the strengthening of scientific departments
fundamental to geophysics will accelerate the preparation for
granting the doctorate in Physics, Geology, and Meteorology. The
former field now provides work leading to the master's degree.
The latter two areas now have curriculums leading to the bachelor's
degree.
-25-
The present Department of Geology and Geophysics, which
includes at present geology, meteorology and some courses in
oceanography will soon be divided into two departments, that of
Geology and the second one, Meteorology and Oceanography. it is
felt that both Meteorology and Oceanography will develop more
rapidly in this combination because of the considerable common
ground between them.
Work leading to the master's degree is now available in
Mathematics. Historically, the Department of Mathematics was
developed with stress on service to the Department of Engineering,
thus it was only by chance that a member of its faculty had an
interest in mathematics as it relates to geophysics. However, Dr.
Christopher Gregory has such an interest as his bibliography
indicates (appended to this report).
With the University's interest now centered on the development
of geophysics, future appointments to the faculty of Mathematics
will be made with such desirable specialization in mind. At
present we are actively seeking such a mathematician to fill a
current vacancy.
Relevant to the development of Mathematics in support the
geophysical institute is the recent appointment of Dr. Robert H.
Riffenburgh, a specialist in statistics, statistical theory, and
design of experiments. Plans are being formulated to establish
Dr. Riffenburgh as director of a statistical consultation center
whose function will be to provide consultation and assistance to
members of the faculty in the design of experiments andanalysis of
data, We have procured an IBM 602 A computer to facilitate the
work of this center. While not as fast as an electronic computer,
it will serve until such time as we can acquire an electronic
machine, The statistical center likewise will administer the
electronic computer, Although the statistical center will function
as an University-wide agency, the geophysical institute will have
complete access to its services.
Pertinent to the entire problem of strengthening the scientific
departments concerned with the geophysical institute is the manner
in which appointments are planned for the institute. As positions
become available in the institute and in supporting departments,
split appointments ordinarily will be made, That is, part of the
position will be devoted to instruction at the appropriate level,
and the remaining portion of time will be allotted to research.
Instruction will be the responsibility of the science departments,
whereas, research will be the responsibility of the institute.
This system has been proven in practice through the development of
our Hawaii Marine Laboratory.
Because good pedagogy requires intimate contact between
students and instructors, and between classrooms and research
laboratories, we intend to develop the Institute of Geophysics in
a single structural facility. Certain supporting departments would
be housed in their entirety within it, e.g., geology, meteorology
~26—
and oceanography. The geophysical faculty of other departments
not entirely devoted to geophysics per se, e.g., physics, chemistry,
mathematics, would have their offices, research laboratories,
graduate student laboratories and classrooms in the institute
building. In this manner, all faculty and students having
geophysical interests would be concentrated in one location,
The success of this undertaking and its rate of development
depend in large part on support provided over and above that
available from the Territorial Legislature. The cost of the
physical plant and expensive equipment is well beyond what the
Territory is able to provide. The value of such an institute in
research and the training of geophysicists has been declared by
the National Science Foundation to be of sufficient importance
nationally that such funds should be provided by the Federal
Government. The Territory will, in turn, provide the basic staff
and maintenance support,
It is reasonable to assume that Federal and Territorial support
must be provided simultaneously. Only in this way can the University
do its part in developing the institute. Unilateral support is in.
sufficient, since additional staff require additionai facilities
and equipment, and additional facilities and equipment. are of little
use unless proper staff are available.
It is in this area of consideration that the University now
finds itself in some difficulty in securing highly qualified
geophysicists for its staff. Quite reasonably such persons wish
to be assured that in coming to Hawaii they will have suitable
working conditions. We can assure them that the University is
stressing development in geophysics, and that the Governor and
Legislature of the Territory are very sympathetic toward this area
of research and training. We can offer them a suitable division
of their working time between research and instruction, as well as
rather adequate library facilities in several major fields of
geophysics. We cannot, however, offer them suitable working space
and equipment, The outlook for alleviating this deficiency is not
bright, because of the tremendous demands being made on Territorial
funds for new public school buildings as well as for new classroom
space at the University to care for the avalanche of students now
underway, and which is not expected to level off for several years
to come.
Respectfully submitted,
L > of:
ether Cl) Kaa
Robert W. Hiatt
Chairman, Advisory Board
Hawaii Institute of Geophysics
11/28/58
10.
li.
12,
13.
14,
15.
ADDENDA
Bibliography of Dr. Christopher Gregory
"supplement to Field Equations," Phys. Rev., 67:179-184.
Mar., 1945.
“Non-linear Invariants and the Problem of Motion." Phys. Rev.,
72:72475, July, 1947.
"A Note on Quantized Space." Phys. Reve., 73:806. Apr., 1948.
*CGommutator Equations for Fields Derived from a Variation
Principle.” Phys. Rev., 78:67. Apr., 1950,
"General Operator Field Equations Derived from a Variation
Principle. Construction of Divergenceless Four~Vector
Operator." Phys. Rev,, 78:479, May, 1950.
"On the Formal Expansion of Operator Functions in Terms of a
Set of Basic Operators.” Natl, Acad. Sci,, Proc., 37:706-709.
Oct., 1951,
“Conservation of Quanta for Non~local Fields." Phys. Rev.,
89:1199, Mar., 1953.
“construction of Gonservation Equations for Non-local Fields."
Phys. Rev., 91:770. Aug., 1953.
"Theory of Operator Fields 1." Technical report prepared for
and distributed by the Office of Naval Research. Oct., 1953.
106 pp.
"Mass Equivalent and Other Effects of a Non-local Electro~
magnetic Field in Interaction with a Constant E, H Field,"
Phys. Rev., 92:1544.1557. Dec., 1953.
"Theory of Operator Fields 11," Technical report prepared for
and distributed by the Office of Naval Research. Oct., 1954,
65 pp.
Mathematical Formulation of Problem of Nitrogen Oxygen
Atmospheric Models." Technical report prepared for and
distributed by Air Force Cambridge Research Center. May, 1955,
“Nitrogen Atmospheric Models." Aug., 1955.
“Nitrogen Oxygen Atmospheric Models (Zero Approximation) ."
Nov., 1955,
‘Nitrogen Oxygen Atmospheric Models in Photochemical
Equilibrium, I." Mar., 1956.
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